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How do we increase crop production?

Plant tissue culture:

Plant tissue culture refers to growing and multiplication of cells, tissues and organs on defined solid or liquid media under aseptic and controlled environment. Plant tissue culture technology is being widely used for large-scale plant multiplication.

EXPLANT SOURCE

Shoot tips and meristem-tips are the most popular sources of explants to initiate tissue cultures. The shoot apex explant measures between 100 to 500µm and includes the apical meristem with 1 to 3 leaf primordia.

Nodal or axillary bud culture: 

This consists of a piece of stem with axillary bud culture with or without a portion of shoot. When only the axillary bud is taken, it is designated as “axillary bud” culture. Floral meristem and bud culture: Such explants are not commonly used in commercial propagation, but floral meristems and buds can generate complete plants. Other sources of explants: In some plants, leaf discs, intercalary meristems from nodes, small pieces of stems, immature zygotic embryos and nucellus have also been used as explants to initiate cultures.

 Cell suspension and callus cultures.

Plant parts such as leaf discs, intercalary meristems, - stem-pieces, immature embryos, anthers, pollen, microspores and ovules have been cultured to initiate callus. A callus is a mass of unorganized cells, which in many cases, upon transfer to suitable medium, is capable of giving rise to shoot-buds and somatic embryos, which then form complete plants. Such calli on culture in liquid media on shakers are used for initiating cell suspensions

PATHWAYS OF CULTURED CELLS AND TISSUES

The cultured cells and tissue can take several pathways to produce a complete plant.

Regeneration and organogenesis

In this pathway, groups of cells of the apical meristem in the shoot apex, axillary buds, root tips, and floral buds are stimulated to differentiate and grow into shoots and ultimately into complete plants. In many cases, the axillary buds formed in the culture undergo repetitive proliferation, and produce large number of tiny plants. The plants are then separated from each other and rooted either in the next stages of micropropagation or in vivo (in trays, small pots or beds in glasshouse or plastic tunnel under relatively high humidity).

The explants cultured on relatively high amounts of auxin (e.g. (2,4-D, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) form an unorganized mass of cells, called callus. The callus can be further sub-cultured and multiplied. The callus shaken in a liquid medium produces cell suspension, which can be subcultured and multiplied into more liquid cultures. The cell suspensions form cell clumps, which eventually form calli and give rise to plants through organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis.

 

In some cases, explants e.g. leaf-discs and epidermal tissue can also generate plants by direct organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis without intervening callus formation, e.g. in orchardgrass.

In organogenesis the cultured plant cells and cell clumps (callus) and mature 4 differentiated cells (microspores, ovules) and tissues (leaf discs, inter-nodal segments) are induced to differentiate into complete plants to form shoot buds and eventually shoots, and rooted to form complete plants.

Somatic embryogenesis

In this pathway, cells or callus cultures on solid media or in suspension cultures form embryo-like structures called somatic embryos, which on germination produce complete plants. A major problem in large-scale production of somatic embryos is culture synchronization. Cytokinins seem to play a key role in cell cycle synchronization and embryo induction, proliferation and differentiation (Schuller et al., 2000). Abscisic acid is crucial in all the stages of somatic development, maturation and hardening.

Synthetic seeds

Successful utilization of synthetic seeds as propagules of choice requires an efficient and reproducible production system and a high percentage of post-planting conversion into vigorous plants. Artificial coats and gel capsules containing nutrients, pesticides and beneficial organisms have long been thought as substitutes for seed coat and endosperm.

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Rooftop Gardening

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Ornamental rooftop garden:

Rooftop gardening is one of the afforestation methods for urban greening.

Benefits of rooftop gardening:

1.  Reduce absorption of excessive solar energy, resulting in a significant energy saving for air-conditioning in a building.
2. vegetation on the roof improves the prevailing dry climate in a city with humidification by their transpiration and also contributes to air purification
3.  it improves the physical environment and reduces the mental stress level in living spaces.
4. an increase in biodiversity

Two types of rooftop gardening:

Intensive roof top gardening

Intensive green roof uses a planting ground with thick soil to enable many kinds of plants including trees to grow. To establish a thick soil layer on a rooftop, the rooftop foundation must be improved at great expense.

Extensive rooftop gardening

On the other hand, extensive green roof uses a planting ground with shallow and light substrates without significant structural alteration to the building. Only limited plant species can grow in the shallow soil or substrate layer with a little water holding capacity, so we must irrigate frequently. We have to select plants that have high drought tolerance.

Selection of substrate:

Peat

Composted manure

1. Cotton gin trash
2. Rice hulls
3. Olive mill wastes
4. Tree bark
5. Urea formaldehyde resin foam
6. Organic waste components (coarse coir, fine coir, composted green waste, almond hull and pistachio hull)
7. Soil
8. Leaf mold
9. vermiculite

Substrate depth should be less than 20cm.

Selection of plants:

Sedum middendorffianum 

Allium senescens 

Chrysanthemum zawadskii

Thymus serphyllum L

Fragaria × ananassa Duch.

summer berry

Lampranthus spectabilis

Ophiopogon japonicus L

Evolvulus pilosa

Hedera helix

A permeable barrier sheet and wire net are set at the bottom of the container to hold substrates and to drain well.

Irrigation:

Irrigate daily for one month to allow rooting. After this each container should water 5 L another day.

during rainy day don't irrigate plant.

Fertilizer:

Apply the suitable organic fertilizer according to soil pH which release the nutrients slowly

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Houseplant Repotting

Is it root-bound?

Does it need new pot to match your décor?

Houseplant Repotting or Up-potting a plant

Do the process when plant is actively growing.

If the pot is full of roots

If you notice an accumulation of salt residue on the pot rim

When up-potting, or moving your plant to a large container

If you are moving a plant from 4 inch port, move up to 6 inch pot. Moving a plant to a much larger pot can create problems.

If your plant starts to dry down, it may topple over because the plant is heavier than the pot, choose a heavier container such as one made of clay or ceramic, which will better support your plant.

Tips For Houseplant Repotting

If water sit on the top and take excessive time to run out of the drainage hole, the medium become compacted not leaving enough air spaces for the water to runout. Move your plant to a large container with fresh medium.

Before repotting, make sure your plant is well hydrated. A moist rootball is less likely to breakover.

Large plants can become impossible to repot. If the roots are becoming visible, simply add fresh medium to the top of the container.

The medium should cover the roots only not the stem of the plant.

 

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Designer guild:

Plant guild

A plant guild is a beneficial grouping of plants that support one and other in all their many functions exchange of nutrients, water and gases, promoting diverstification.

Functions of Plant guild in designer guild.

Nitrogen fixation

Mineral and nutrient uptake

Attractions of insects and pollinators

A biological guild is a group of organisms that use the same ecological resource in similar way.

Important plants in designer guild

Nitrogen fixing plants

There is some nitrogen fixing plants:

1. Legumes
2. Clovers
3. Beans
4. Black locust tress

Plants that take nutrients from different soil surface to the upper surface. 

• Comfrey, 
• dandelion,
•  other tap rooted species.

The dandelion absorbs calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, zinc, copper and selenium through its tap root and supply other plants as its leaves dry back and drop to the surface of the soil. There the soil biology, animals and fungi break the leaves down and makes their nutrients available for other plants.

Plant a mulberry tree between a walnut tree and an apple tree. The mulberry blocks some of the allelopathic chemical exudate of the walnut which inhibit the growth of other plants.

The oak trees offer shade to the burdoak, which drills its taproot deep into the soil profile and pulls up the minerals. Burdoak complete the mineral needs of berries.

Designer guild

Oak tree guild

Oaks (Quercus spp.) are central tree components in many yards. Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) and white oak (Quercus alba) both yield tasty acorns, needing minimal processing to make an edible nut flour.

The space beneath the wide spreading branches of the oak is an excellent place for the growing of shade tolerant species. One possibility is paw paw (Asimina triloba), the only temperate climate relative of the tropical custard apple. Paw paws, also called custard bananas, grow to a height of 12 to 15 feet with the fruit ripening in the fall.

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) and horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) as deep rooted perennials can, after composting of the leaves, yield up the subsoil minerals they have bioaccumulated. Side dressing this compost around the shrubs and trees will yield the best effect. Of course, comfrey has both medicinal and livestock feed uses and horseradish makes a wonderful condiment.

The edge areas near the drip line afford enough sunlight for other species such as quince (Cydonia oblongata), and hazels (Corylus spp.). Open areas with dappled light are niches for shrubby fruits such as gooseberries (Ribes uva-crispa)and currants (Ribes nigrum and R. rubrum).

Strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa) as a groundcover can fill in the remaining sunny spaces. A substitute for strawberries could be arctic raspberry (Rubus arcticus) which will only grow to a height of 1 foot. For the shaded areas where strawberries and raspberries would not do well, wild ginger (Asarum canadense) will grow

Borage (Borago officinalis) is a bee attractant which has a beneficial effect on strawberries. The borage flower is a bright blue and is edible with an agreeable cucumber flavor. Its seeds are a source of nutritionally beneficial GLA fatty acids. Borage also self-sows, so you can plant it once and move the seedlings around the following year.

 

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Organic Fertilizer

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Sugarcane by-products as Organic Fertilizer

1.       Press mud

Press mud is a soft, spongy, amorphous, and dark brown to brownish material. It is generated during the purification of sugar by carbonation or sulphitation process. Both processes separated clear juice on top and mud at the bottom.

 In general, when 100 t of sugarcane is crushed, about 3 t of press mud are produced as a by-product. Press mud supplies a good amount of organic manure.

 It contains 50–70 % moisture, which is most favorable for soil micro-organisms, especially earth[1]worms. The integrated use of SPM with nitrogen fertilizers has enhanced the dry matter, cane, and sugar yield.

Bagasse

 It is the by-product of sugarcane industries during the extraction of juice from cane. 

It is dry pulpy residue and fibrous in nature. 

It contains sugar, which is responsible for fast bio-degradable within 3 months. 

The application of bagasse in agricultural crop production systems can reduce the application rate of fertilizers. It produced organic acids, which mobilized the insoluble P from soil to soil solution in labile form. During application, it is suggested that these bagasse properly chopped; and applied one month prior to seed sowing in the field for proper decomposition. Rate of decomposition is also affected by temperature, moisture, and population and diversity of soil micro-organisms.

Spentwash

 

Bio methanated spentwash, a plant extract and microbial residue is rich in plant nutrients and can be utilized in agriculture as liquid manure.

 

 

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Types of Biofertilizer

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TYPES OF BIOFERTILIZER

 Biofertilizers are Broadly Categorized into Four Groups

 1: Biofertilizers for nitrogen fixation (Bacteria-Symbiotic: - Rhizobium, Associative: - Azospirillum, Non-symbiotic: -Azotobacter, Acetobacter, Algae- Non-symbiotic: - BGA, Symbiotic: - Azolla). 

• Biofertilizers for phosphate solubilization or mobilization (Bacteria- Non- symbiotic: - Bacillus, Pseudomonas; Fungi - Non- symbiotic: - Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma; Symbiotic: - Arbuscular Mycorrhiza.

 • Biofertilizers for potassium solubilization or mobilization (Bacteria- Nonsymbiotic; - Frateuria).

 • Biofertilizers for decomposing organic matters (Cellulytic fungi- Trichoderma, Chaetomium aruanse, Aspergillus: Cellulytic Bacteria: Cellulomonas and Clostridium; Cellulytic Actinomycetes: - Nocardia and Streptomyces and Lignolytic fungi- Calvaria sp, Cephalosporium sp, and thunicola sp) 

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Medicinal plant

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Medicinal plant, Kalanchoe (Bryophyllum pinnatum and Kalanchoe pinnatum )

Kalanchoe (Bryophyllum pinnatum and Kalanchoe pinnatum )is a succulent perennial and medicinal plant that grows 3-5 feet tall. Commonly known as 'air plant,' it has tall hollow stems, fleshy dark green leaves that are distinctively scalloped and trimmed in red, and bell-like pendulous flowers.

Medicinal properties:

 The chemicals reported from the plant belong to different classes such as alkaloid, diterpenoidal lactones, glycosides, steroids, phenolics, aliphatic compounds, etc. The notable pharmacological properties include anti-diabetic, anti-neoplastic, antioxidant, immunomodulation, anti-lipidaemic, anti-allergic and many more activities which are yet to be explored.

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Algae Fertilizer

Uses of Algae Fertilizers:

Seaweeds are used for soil preparation

Biostimulants

Algae Fertilizer as soil preparation

goémon” (Ascophyllum sp., Fucus sp.)

Seaweeds are spread on the fields to prepare the plantation of vegetables and fruits.

 

Algae Fertilizers as Biostimulants

The seaweed extracts involved to this type of activity are mainly obtained from brown

seaweed belonging to the Laminariales (Laminaria) or Fucales (i.e., Ascophyllum nodosum,

Fucus sp.)

 

These products are applied to crops by seed soaking, foliar spraying or direct spraying on the soil. They mainly promote seed germination and the growth of plants.

 Algae Fertilizers help plants resist Biotic stress

 

Certain molecules present in seaweed extracts promote the resistance of plants to biotic or abiotic stresses.For example, the Laminarin polysaccharide present in Ascophyllum nodosum shows an inducing activity of the natural defense mechanisms of plants against fungal, bacterial, or viral infection

Algae Fertilizers help plants resist Abiotic stress

The brown seaweeds contain chemical compounds that increase drought tolerance.

Ascophyllum nodosum extract on the tolerance of plants to salinity stress

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Proper harvesting of cut flowers for post-harvest management

Harvesting of cut flowers:

Harvesting of cut flowers should be done in proper way, considering the following points:

· Stage of Harvest: Harvesting stage is dependent upon market distance.

 Flowers may be selected at some advanced stage for local market while for distant markets especially for export; flowers at early stage should be selected.

· Time of harvest:

Early morning or evening time should be preferred for harvesting of cut flowers.

· Mode of harvest: Flowers should be harvested using sharp tools to obtain sharp and slant cut.

 immediately after harvest flower stalk ends should be kept in water.

· Stage of harvest Flowers remain in turgid condition for a long time if harvested at the proper stage of development. Cut flowers are generally harvested at early stage (matured stage) for long distance transport & at advanced stage for the local market. In some cases, the longer stem length is higher post harvest life & quality of flowers.

Harvesting stages of different cut flowers

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Postharvest management of cut flowers

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Postharvest management of cut flowers

Postharvest care is one of the most important factors influencing the quality of flower, a highly perishable commodity.

Postharvest handling for short duration

Pulsing

Pulse treatment is a treatment that is performed on cut flowers by immersing their stem tip into a preservative solution containing nutrients and germicides for about 12 hours.

Postharvest handling for long duration

Preservative solution using sucrose, different chemical, anti-microbial agents, anti-ethylene agents, acidifiers and plant growth regulators.

 

 

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Effect of Biofertilizer on the Production of Citrus and control of Citrus Canker disease

Citrus trees (Citrus spp.) considered one of the important fruit  crops in different countries worldwide are 

Different abiotic and biotic factors affect Citriculture like temperature, drought, soil salinity, agricultural practice, pests, and diseases.

2

There are different challenges for citrus cultivation, whereas biotic stress represents a serious threat, particularly under climate change conditions, the main biotic stresses include fungal, bacterial, viruses diseases, and Nematodes, consequently, management practices changed in major ways as a response to biotic and abiotic stresses

Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers can control pests and pathogens and protect citrus orchards, produce more healthy fruits, and protect the environment as a part of the biological control strategy.

Antagonistic bacteria Bacillus velezensis isolate SWUA08 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate SWUC02 offer an alternative perspective to evaluate a method of canker disease inhibition.

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Perennial plants according to light period

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what is a perennial?

Perennials are plants that persist year after year in a garden. They may be evergreen or deciduous.

Light requirement:

Some perennials like full sun need a location with no shade, or at least 8 hours without shade.

Snowflake perennial candytuft

Moonshine yarrow plant

Delavy incarvillea

Sage

Iris

phlox

Perennials that require part shade require an area that receives 3 to 4 hours of direct sun each day in the early morning or evening, but not at midday. Planting on the east or west side of a building provides this type of shade. Part shade is also the filtered light provided by shade trees that have had their lower limbs removed to provide direct sunlight for short periods as the sun shines through gaps in the foliage.

Lenten rose

Ferns

Adiantum capillus veneris

Athyrium niponicum

Cyrtomium falcatum

Dryopteris erythrosora

 

Full shade is provided by the north side of a building or from the cover of dense evergreen trees. It takes a special plant to thrive in these conditions.

Yellow wax bell

White nancy

Blue ginger

Some violet

 

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Increase the quality of Guava fruit (‎Psidium guajava) with organic production

Organic inputs provide high yield and fruit quality with market demand for soluble solids, pH, titratable acidity, pulp firmness and soluble solids.

Organic Inputs

Farm Yard Manure

Cakes of plant origin

Vermicompost

Azobecter spp produces growth hormones, vitamins

Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae Increase TSS content and ascorbic acid of fruit

Dose recommendation for 4-year-old plant

FYM (26 kg per tree per year)

Azotobacter (100g per tree)

P solubilizers( 100g per tree)

Potash mobilizers (100g per tree)

These are all applied in January and August

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System of Pruning of Grapes Vitis vinifera

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System of pruning:

The systems of pruning can be divided into two classes according to the arrangement of the arms on the trunk of the vine.

1:

There is a definite head to the trunk, from which all the arms arise symmetrically at nearly the same level. The vines of these systems may be called "headed vines."

2:

In the other systems, the trunk is elongated four to eight feet and the arms are distributed regularly along the whole or the greater portion of its length. The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-like form of the trunks, are called "cordons."

Subsystems:

1.

Spurs of one, two, or three eyes are left for fruit production. This system is called short or spur pruning. 2

Long canes are left for fruit production. This is called long or cane pruning.

In rare cases an intermediate form is adopted in which long spurs or short canes of five or six eyes are left.

In cane pruning, each fruit cane is accompanied by one or two short renewal spurs. These must also accompany half- long pruning.  Tie to wires stretching along the rows in a horizontal, ascending or descending direction.

Head Pruning: Vase form

Medium trunk short fruit spur. It is suitable for small growing vines, which bear on the lower buds. The unit of pruning is fruit spur of 1,2 and 3 internodes.

Cordon pruning:

Unilateral, Horizontal Cordon system

It consists of a trunk about seven feet long, supported horizontally by a wire two feet from the ground. Arms and spurs are arranged along the whole horizontal part of the trunk.it is not suited for weak vines. It is only suited to very vigorous verities.

 

 

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